Children Raised In Single Parent Families

Parents play an integral role in the development of their children either directly or indirectly. In recognition of the important roles played by parents in the lives of their children, we honor and celebrate mothers in the month of May on Mother’s Day and fathers in the month of June on Father’s Day. This year, Mother’s Day was held on Sunday, May 13, 2012 and Father’s Day is Sunday, June 17, 2012.

Each year, for the past thirty (30) years, in the United States, on the third Sunday in the month of June, we honor and celebrate the contributions that fathers make in the lives of their children. Dr. Sigmund Freud is reported to have said that, he could not think of any need in childhood as strong as the need for a father’s protection.

For a growing number of American children, they have not known the love, protection, and guidance of a father. Social science research has shown the devastating impact of fatherless homes on the lives children. Data indicates that children in fatherless homes experience more major challenges in life than those who grow up with a father at home. The following statistics on children in fatherless homes are alarming and should give any father pause when thinking about his children.

“Incarceration Rates. “Young men who grow up in homes without fathers are twice as likely to end up in jail as those who come from traditional two-parent families…those boys whose fathers were absent from the household had double the odds of being incarcerated — even when other factors such as race, income, parent education and urban residence were held constant.” (Cynthia Harper of the University of Pennsylvania and Sara S. McLanahan of Princeton University cited in “Father Absence and Youth Incarceration.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 14 (September 2004): 369-397.)

Suicide. 63% of youth suicides are from fatherless homes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bureau of the Census).

Behavioral Disorders. 85% of all children that exhibit behavioral disorders come from fatherless homes (United States Center for Disease Control).

High School Dropouts. 71% of all high school dropouts come from fatherless homes (National Principals Association Report on the State of High Schools.).

Educational Attainment. Kids living in single-parent homes or in step-families report lower educational expectations on the part of their parents, less parental monitoring of school work, and less overall social supervision than children from intact families. (N.M. Astore and S. McLanahan, American Sociological Review, No. 56 (1991).

Juvenile Detention Rates. 70% of juveniles in state-operated institutions come from fatherless homes (U.S. Dept. of Justice, Special Report, Sept 1988).

Confused Identities. Boys who grow up in father-absent homes are more likely than those in father-present homes to have trouble establishing appropriate sex roles and gender identity.(P.L. Adams, J.R. Milner, and N.A. Schrepf, Fatherless Children, New York, Wiley Press, 1984).

Aggression. In a longitudinal study of 1,197 fourth-grade students, researchers observed “greater levels of aggression in boys from mother-only households than from boys in mother-father households.” (N. Vaden-Kierman, N. Ialongo, J. Pearson, and S. Kellam, “Household Family Structure and Children’s Aggressive Behavior: A Longitudinal Study of Urban Elementary School Children,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology23, no. 5 (1995).

Achievement. Children from low-income, two-parent families outperform students from high-income, single-parent homes. Almost twice as many high achievers come from two-parent homes as one-parent homes. (One-Parent Families and Their Children, Charles F. Kettering Foundation, 1990).

Delinquency. Only 13 percent of juvenile delinquents come from families in which the biological mother and father are married to each other. By contrast, 33 percent have parents who are either divorced or separated and 44 percent have parents who were never married. (Wisconsin Dept. of Health and Social Services, April 1994).

Criminal Activity. The likelihood that a young male will engage in criminal activity doubles if he is raised without a father and triples if he lives in a neighborhood with a high concentration of single-parent families. Source: A. Anne Hill, June O’Neill, Underclass Behaviors in the United States, CUNY, Baruch College. 1993”[i].

If you want to make a meaningful difference in the lives of children and youth in homes where the fathers are absent, you can support the very necessary work of nonprofit organizations such as Big Brothers Big Sisters and/or Boys and Girls Club. Big Brothers Big Sisters has a 100 year history of providing quality youth mentoring services that have proven to have a measurable impact in the lives of: the youth served, their families and their community.

Boys and Girls Club’s mission is to “…enable all young people, especially those who need us most, to reach their full potential as productive, caring, responsible citizens.”. Every day, these agencies are changing the perspectives of children and enabling them to see the world around them in a more positive light. With that newfound point of view, they can see their potential more clearly and dream bigger about their future. Get involved in a child’s life.

Sources: Boys and Girls Club’s website. Big Brothers Big Sisters’ website. Indystar.com. “Father’s absence takes heavy toll on children”, Editorial, June 18, 2011. “Statistics on Fatherless Children in America”. Wayne Parker, About.com Guide.

Photo credit: Microsoft Clip Art.

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[i] “Statistics on Fatherless Children in America”. Wayne Parker, About.com

June 19, 2011 

• in Press Releases

Fatherless Children

Parents play an integral role in the development of their children either directly or indirectly. In recognition of the important roles played by parents in the lives of their children, we honor and celebrate mothers in the month of May on Mother’s Day and fathers in the month of June on Father’s Day. This year, Mother’s Day was held on Sunday, May 8, 2011 and Father’s Day is Sunday, June 19, 2011.

Each year, for the past twenty-nine (29) years, in the United States, on the third  Sunday in the month of June, we honor and celebrate the contributions that fathers make in the lives of their children. Dr. Sigmund Freud is reported to have said that, he could not think of any need in childhood as strong as the need for a father’s protection.

For a growing number of American children, they have not known the love, protection, and guidance of a father. Social science research has shown the devastating impact of fatherless homes on the lives children. Data indicates that children in fatherless homes experience more major challenges in life than those who grow up with a father at home. The following statistics on children in fatherless homes are alarming and should give any father pause when thinking about his children.

“Incarceration Rates. “Young men who grow up in homes without fathers are
twice as likely to end up in jail as those who come from traditional two-parent families…those boys whose fathers were absent from the household had double
the odds of being incarcerated — even when other factors such as race, income,
parent education and urban residence were held constant.” (Cynthia Harper
of the University of Pennsylvania and Sara S. McLanahan of Princeton University
cited in “Father Absence and Youth Incarceration.” Journal of
Research on Adolescence 14 (September 2004): 369-397.)

Suicide. 63% of youth  suicides are from fatherless homes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bureau of the Census)

Behavioral Disorders. 85% of all children that exhibit behavioral disorders
come from fatherless homes (United States Center for Disease Control)

High School Dropouts. 71% of all high school dropouts come from fatherless  homes (National Principals Association Report on the State of High Schools.)

Educational Attainment. Kids living in single-parent homes or in step-families report lower educational expectations on the part of their parents, less parental monitoring of school work, and less overall social supervision than children from intact families. (N.M. Astore and S. McLanahan,American Sociological Review, No. 56 (1991)

Juvenile Detention Rates. 70% of juveniles in state-operated institutions come from fatherless homes (U.S. Dept. of Justice, Special Report, Sept 1988)

Confused Identities. Boys who grow up in father-absent homes are more likely than those in father-present homes to have trouble establishing appropriate sex roles and gender identity.(P.L. Adams, J.R. Milner, and N.A. Schrepf, Fatherless Children, New York, Wiley Press, 1984).

Aggression. In a longitudinal study of 1,197 fourth-grade students, researchers observed
“greater levels of aggression in boys from mother-only households than from boys in mother-father households.” (N. Vaden-Kierman, N. Ialongo, J. Pearson, and S. Kellam, “Household Family Structure and Children’s Aggressive Behavior: A Longitudinal Study of Urban Elementary School Children,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 23, no. 5 (1995).

Achievement. Children from low-income, two-parent families outperform students from high-income, single-parent homes. Almost twice as many high achievers come from two-parent homes as one-parent homes. (One-Parent Families and Their
Children, Charles F. Kettering Foundation, 1990).

Delinquency. Only 13 percent of juvenile delinquents come from families in which the biological mother and father are married to each other. By contrast, 33 percent have parents who are either divorced or separated and 44 percent have parents who were never married. (Wisconsin Dept. of Health and Social Services, April 1994).

Criminal Activity. The likelihood that a young male will engage in criminal activity doubles if he is raised without a father and triples if he lives in a neighborhood with a high concentration of single-parent families. Source: A. Anne Hill, June O’Neill, Underclass Behaviors in the United States, CUNY, Baruch College. 1993”[i]

If you want to make a meanigful difference in the lives of children and youth in homes where the fathers are absent, you can support the very necessary work of nonprofit organizations such as Big Brothers Big Sisters and/or Boys and Girls Club. Big Brothers Big Sisters has a 100 year history of providing quality youth mentoring services that have proven to have a measurable impact in the lives of: the youth served, their families and their community. Boys and Girls Club’s mission is to “…enable all young people, especially those who need us most, to reach their full potential as productive, caring, responsible citizens.” Every day, these agencies are changing the perspectives of children and enabling them to see the world around them in a more positive light. With that newfound point of view, they can see their potential more clearly and dream bigger about their future. Get involved in a child’s life.

Sources: Boys and Girls Club’s website. Big BrothersBig Sisters’ website. Indystar.com. “Father’s absence takes heavy toll on children”, Editorial, June 18, 2011. “Statistics on Fatherless Children in America”. Wayne Parker, About.com Guide. Photo credit: Microsoft Clip Art.

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[i] “Statistics on Fatherless Children in America”. Wayne Parker, About.com Guide

How Do Fathers Fit In?

How Do Fathers Fit In?

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There is a tendency today to speak of 'parents' or 'carers' rather than 'mothers' or 'fathers'. People often say that the most important thing in raising children is to give them lots of love, something that all parents can do, regardless of whether they are a mother or a father. However, there are also many ways that mothers and fathers can bring unique strengths to their relationships with their children. In real people's lives, you can see these contributions, and they have been measured by social scientists. Fathers-just like mothers-always matter. Download as an Adobe PDF file. Go to Teacher's Lesson Notes.

Two Heads are Better Than One

Richness of Care A child who has both a mother and a father benefits from an increased richness of care. In other words, children with both a mother and a father can benefit from more caring, as well as a varietyof caring styles. Bridges to the World Through their fathers and mothers, children have access to a vast network including grandparents, cousins, aunts and uncles, friends of the family, work colleagues, community organisations, faith communities, and even personal histories. Fathers and mothers provide 'bridges' to all these aspects of the outside world, providing more experiences for children as well as practical opportunities such as job possibilities. Mothers Benefit from Fathers' Support If a mother can count on her children's father to help with keeping the house clean and in good repair, caring for the children, paying the bills, and planning for the future, she probably will be a happier, more effective parent. The support a mother receives from her child's father can even help her be more competent and sensitive when feeding her baby. Mothers seem to gain the most security when they are married and know the father is committed to a lifelong relationship to her and their child.[1] Breadwinning Today, most families rely upon the incomes of both mothers and fathers. However, fathers still provide the lion's share of income. Fathers are either the sole earners or the main earners in two-thirds of two-parent households. Moreover, fathers' earnings are uniquely linked to many positive results for children, even when mothers' earnings are taken into consideration.[2]

Complementary Roles

It often is useful, as well as accurate, to generalise about average differences between men and women. Whether these differences are due more to inborn biological chemistry, or social pressures, or some combination of the two, is much debated. It is generally agreed that men and women should no longer be regarded as 'opposites'. The important thing to remember is that mothers and fathers often bring different strengths and styles to their parenting roles. These roles complement each other, meaning that they are not interchangeable and are each necessary for healthy childrearing.

'Do fathers and mothers have different styles of play? Consider these two examples: a father picks up his son, seven-month-old David, tosses him in the air, and throws his head back so that he and David are face to face. As David giggles and chortles, his father lowers him, shakes him, and tosses him up in the air again. A mother sits her daughter, ten-month-old Lisa, on her lap and pulls out her favourite toy, a green donkey that brays when you squeeze it. Lisa smiles, and for the next few minutes her mother moves the donkey in front of Lisa's eyes, makes it bray, and talks and sings to her daughter. Lisa watches intently, smiles, and occasionally reaches for her donkey. Are these examples merely cultural stereotypes, or do mothers and fathers really play with their babies in different ways? A series of studies confirm that differences in parental play styles do exist.' From the book Fatherhood, by Ross Parke

How Fathers Influence Children As They Grow

In the past, psychologists studying the development of children focused almost exclusively on children's relationships with their mothers. Today, they have come to agree that fathers play a unique and crucial role in nurturing and guiding children's development. Many experts now believe that fathers can be just as nurturing and sensitive with their babies as mothers. [4] As their children grow, fathers take on added roles of guiding their children's intellectual and social development. Even when a father is 'just playing' with his children, he is nurturing their development. Fathers and Babies Babies need predictability and security, which they get when their mother and father respond consistently, promptly, and appropriately to their cries, smiles and other signals. As a baby develops a relationship with his or her mother and father, he comes to prefer them to other adults, in a process known as attachment. Psychologists agree that babies with secure attachments to their parents have better chances to develop into happy, successful, and well-adjusted children and adults. [5] Mothers tend to be relied upon more than fathers for the comfort and security components of attachment, primarily because they are usually the infant's main caregiver. [6] Babies also form attachments to their fathers, who tend to be just as responsive to their babies' bids for attention as mothers. [7] When fathers spend more time with their babies, they get to know exactly what each of their baby's signals mean. This familiarity allows fathers to respond sensitively, meaning that they know when their baby is hungry rather than when he just wants a change of scenery. [8] The effects of attachment on children are broad and long-lasting. For example, one study found that primary school children scored higher on tests of empathy-the ability to see a situation from another person's viewpoint-if they had secure attachments to their fathers during infancy. These children were able to recognize how other children felt and took steps to make them feel better. [9] Both mothers and fathers encourage their babies to investigate the world, manipulate objects, and explore physical relationships. [10] However, mothers and fathers have different styles of relating. Mothers tend to speak soothingly and softly in repetitive rhythms to their infants and snugly hold them. Fathers tend to provide more verbal and physical stimulation, by patting their babies gently and communicating to them with sharp bursts of sound. As babies grow older, many come to prefer playing with their fathers who provide unpredictable, stimulating, and exciting interaction. [11] This stimulation is important because it fosters healthy development of the baby's brain and can have lasting effects on children's social, emotional, and intellectual development. Infants with involved fathers tend to score higher on tests of thinking skills and brain development. [12] Both the mother and the father are important to an infant's development in special ways. For example, in one study, baby boys whose fathers engaged in physically playful, affectionate and stimulating play during infancy were more popular later as school children. Mothers influenced their sons' popularity through a different route, by providing verbal stimulation.[13]

Fathers and Small Children When babies become toddlers, parents must go beyond nurturing them and begin to address two additional needs: supporting their toddler's exploration and setting appropriate limits for the child. Through playing with their toddlers, fathers take a special role in achieving these two goals. Children learn from them how to solve problems and how to get along with others. [14] Fathers spend a larger proportion of their time playing with their young children than mothers do, and they tend to be more boisterous and active in their play. Most children enjoy this kind of play. [15] Even if their fathers spend less time with them than their mothers, fathers become salient, or meaningful and special, to their children through play. [16] When fathers play with their toddlers, they are not just entertaining them. They are providing a safe, yet challenging arena for toddlers to learn how to interact with the world and with others. Through rough-and-tumble play, fathers create obstacles for their children and demand respect for limits and boundaries. At the same time, they challenge their children and encourage them to explore their own strength, their ability to do new things, and their impact on the world around them. Toddlers who must work out for themselves how to achieve goals-such as retrieving a ball that is just out of reach in their father's hand or wrestling their father to the ground-are practicing important problem-solving skills. In fact, when fathers are good at playing with their young children, these children score higher on tests of thinking and problem-solving skills. [17] Playing with fathers also helps children develop emotional knowledge, so that they can identify their own emotions, acknowledge the emotional experiences of others, and describe the causes of emotions. Toddlers must also learn emotional regulation, the ability to express emotions responsibly and control their behaviour. To understand how much emotional regulation develops during early childhood, one can picture a toddler in the midst of an angry temper tantrum, holding his breath until he gets his way. Contrast this with a four-year-old who feels frustrated that the rain has ruined his plans to play football, yet moves beyond those feelings and engages in a board game with his sister instead. When children understand their emotions and know how to control them, it makes them more popular with other children. [18] The father's influence on emotional development is not limited to play, but also comes through direct teaching and daily interaction. Studies have shown that, when fathers are affectionate and helpful, their children are more likely to get on well with their brothers and sisters. [19] When children have fathers who are emotionally involved-that is, they acknowledge their children's emotions and help them deal with bad emotions-they score higher on tests of 'emotional intelligence'. Moreover, they tend to have better relationships with other children and behave less aggressively. Fathers' involvement in their young children's care can even last well into adulthood. [20] Mothers seem to have much less impact in this area of emotional regulation and peer relationships than fathers. It really is fathers who can have a major influence on helping their children build strong social relationships during childhood and later in life. Fathers of Children at Primary School Learning to meet challenges As children reach school age, they begin to grapple with learning more adult-like skills, testing them out in new environments, and dealing with the feelings evoked by successes and failures. A sense of industry, or a belief that he or she can accomplish a goal or master a skill, is important to a child's developing sense of self-esteem. Fathers seem to be key teachers in this area. As one expert puts it, 'the quality of the father's involvement during this period is a crucial factor in determining whether the child develops the confidence and competence to meet new challenges in a positive manner.' [21] One reason that fathers have such an influential role at this time is because they tend to challenge their children to try new experiences and to become more independent. Challenged children have more opportunity to develop problem-solving skills. In one study, children whose fathers expected them to handle responsibilities, such as carrying scissors, crossing the street, or taking a bath alone, scored higher in tests of thinking skills. [22] Accomplishing tasks at this age is so important, and fathers' involvement is so crucial, that fathers have a larger influence on their children's self-esteem at this age than do mothers. [23] By encouraging children to take on new challenges, fathers help them not only to learn new skills, but also to take responsibility for their own actions. [24] Fathers with a strong commitment to their family provide a model of responsible behaviour for their children. These children have an internal sense of control, which means that they are more likely to believe that their successes and failures are due to their own efforts rather than due to external factors. These children tend to take more responsibility for their actions and rarely blame others for their mistakes. [25] Fathers usually have a positive influence on their children's sense of industry, competence, and responsibility. However, if a father discourages his children and intrudes on potential learning situations by being too restrictive or imposing his own solutions, he will have a bad influence on his children. Whether this type of paternal behaviour is motivated by a desire to protect his child, by feelings of impatience or frustration, or by his lack of trust in the child, it can hamper children's development of creativity, motivation, and problem-solving skills, making them less responsible and more dependent. [26] Achieving in school Generally speaking, the more actively involved and interested a father is in his children's care and education, the more intellectually developed his children are. [27] Why should this be the case? One reason is that, when fathers are involved, they tend to provide better economic support for their children. Children with better economic support have access to more educational resources and have better opportunities to learn. For example, in two-parent families, the more the father earns, the better his children do at school, even when mothers' earnings are taken into consideration. [28] Another reason that fathers influence intellectual development is that, when their children are school-aged, fathers spend a good deal of time helping them with studies. This level of commitment has an impact on children's academic success. In one study, four- and five-year-old boys scored higher in maths tests when fathers encouraged skills like counting and reading. [29] In another study, the level of a father's involvement in his child's academic studies predicted success later in life. One expert even found that the amount of time fathers spend with their children has a direct link with maths skills. [30] The influence fathers have on their children's intellectual development is not limited specifically to helping with school work. Fathers can have a positive influence on their children's thinking skills by participating in social activities and sports as well. [31] One study found that children whose fathers encouraged them in sport and fitness activities were more successful in school and in their careers later in life. This held true for daughters as well as sons. [32] Getting on in life A father's involvement during his children's school years has other positive outcomes. The first years of school can be difficult for children, but fathers can help their children adjust. [33] When fathers are supportive, their children have fewer problems at school such as excessive absence or poor exam results. This holds true even after taking into consideration the influence of the children's mothers. [34] Even when fathers provide only limited attention, warmth, and affection, and are not around all of the time, their children benefit from their influence in terms of adjusting to new experiences, having stable emotions, and knowing how to get along with others. [35] For children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), supportive fathers can have a stronger positive influence on their adjustment to school than mothers. [36] Moral development is another area where fathers have special influence. How do fathers influence their children's moral development? First, by directly providing guidance and direction. When fathers share their plans, activities, and interests, their children are better behaved in school. When fathers emphasise how behaviour can affect other people's feelings, their school-aged daughters are regarded as very unselfish by classmates. The mere presence of a father helped boys in one study to develop patience by waiting for things they wanted. These children chose to delay a small reward of sweets for a week in order to receive a larger reward of sweets. Fathers also influence their children's moral development by providing models for their children. In one study, boys who felt similar to, admired, and wanted to resemble their fathers scored higher on tests of personal moral judgement, moral values, and rule-following. However, boys who did not identify strongly with their fathers showed reluctance to accept blame or guilt when they misbehaved. These boys also tended to have problems with self-control and were more aggressive in school. [37] The father's special influence on his school-aged children's development of personal morality lasts into adulthood. Adults whose fathers had been highly involved when they were children were more tolerant and understanding and engaged in more socially responsible behaviour than those with less involved fathers. [38] Fathers and Teenagers One of the main tasks for adolescents and teenagers is to develop their personal identity and deepen their relationships with their friends, while also maintaining a strong connection to their families. Teenagers spend more time away from their parents and look to their friends for cues on how to dress and which parties to go to. However, mothers and fathers continue to have a strong influence, especially upon their children's beliefs, values, and plans for the future. Adolescence is often a time of increased conflict between children and their parents, especially their mothers. This might be because teenagers spend more time with their mothers than their fathers, or because mothers tend to take issue with aspects of behaviour that touch on teenagers' sense of personal identity, such as clothing or body piercing. Although teenagers rely more upon their mothers for emotional support, the relationship with fathers continues to be important. Teenagers rely more upon their fathers for conversation, advice, and just 'being there'. [39] Adolescents who felt their fathers were 'available' to them had fewer conflicts with their friends. [40] Unfortunately, some fathers seem to withdraw from their teenagers. Whether this is due to his concern for instilling independence in his children, or due to changes and stresses he is experiencing in his own life, a reduction in a father's availability and guidance during his children's adolescence can have bad consequences. This is especially the case for daughters. As noted above, fathers' involvement was important to both sons' and daughters' self-esteem when they were in primary school. However, for 15-16 year old girls, the level of a mother's involvement seems to have more influence. [41] Teenage girls find it easier to talk to their mothers, which can make fathers feel as if they are not needed. However, this is not the case. Teenage girls may find self-esteem in their relationships with mothers, but they find guidance about how to relate to others and how to plan for the future from their fathers.

How Fathers Fit Into the Family

The Family System Social scientists often emphasise the role of fathers in the family system, and how their actions affect the entire environment and context in which a child grows. One of the most important ways a father influences that environment is in his interaction with his children's mother. This is because the relationships which children observe and experience at an early age influence their own relationships later in life. It is also because family relationships are interrelated-the way that mothers and fathers interact affects the mother-child relationship as well as the father-child relationship. Because of this interrelatedness, parents who have a strong and happy relationship have a head-start to being good parents. [42] Non-resident Fathers Statistics about children who do not live with their fathers can be grim. On almost every outcome that has been tested, including educational achievement, self-esteem, responsible social behaviour, and adjustment as adults, children do better when they live with both of their parents. Family instability and financial problems do contribute to the poor outcomes for children from broken homes. However, as one scholar who reviewed 28 studies of father absence states: 'the major disadvantage related to father absence for children is lessened parental attention'. [43] Non-resident fathers can face special challenges in contributing positively to their children's development. Fathers who do not live with their children simply are less available to nurture, guide, and provide for their children. In cases of divorce, some mothers limit the time children have with their fathers. Fathers who were never married are even less likely than divorced fathers to keep in contact with their children. Moreover, the large geographic distances that exist between some children and their fathers make close relationships difficult to maintain. Either parent or both may form new relationships and have children with other people. In many cases, the entire family enjoys a lower standard of living when they live apart. Despite these disadvantages, non-resident fathers can still make a difference for their children. The most obvious route of influence is by providing adequate financial support. Studies show children whose fathers pay child support do better in school and have fewer behaviour problems. [44] Children who feel close to their non-resident fathers also tend to do better. And, when non-resident fathers are able to use their time with their children wisely by helping with homework, setting and enforcing rules, and supervising their children, children can benefit a great deal. [45] Married or Cohabiting Fathers The role of marriage as a foundation for family life has become controversial. More and more people are cohabiting or living together before marriage or as an alternative to marriage. More couples also are having children without marrying. Some people say that marriage is 'just a piece of paper' and does not make any difference to the couple or their children. For some couples, this might be the case. However, studies have shown that the majority of cohabiting couples are less committed than married couples, even if they have children. In fact, only 36% of children born to cohabiting couples are likely to live with both their mother and their father for their entire childhood, compared to 70% of children born within marriage. [46] It is for this reason that many supporters of the father's role in raising children also support marriage for fathers. [47] Good Fathering is Good Parenting Most children do best when their mothers and fathers engage in what developmental psychologists call authoritative parenting. This style of parenting involves spending time with children, providing emotional support, giving everyday assistance, monitoring children's behaviour, and providing consistent, fair and proportionate discipline. [48] This can be contrasted with permissive parenting, in which parents avoid setting standards and limits, and authoritarian parenting, in which parents are harsh and rigid in their discipline and fail to respect their child's point of view. Neither of these parenting styles have as positive an influence on children's development as authoritative parenting. Authoritative, or 'good parenting', may be expressed in different styles. While mothers tend to provide more emotional warmth for their children, fathers provide a strong sense of security. While children usually can depend on their mothers for unconditional love, they often must earn their father's approval. While mothers soothe their children more often, fathers often provide more stimulation. All parents-both mothers and fathers-have important roles in rearing their children. Better appreciation of where fathers fit in will lead to happier and more productive children. References: [1] Pleck, J.H., Working Wives and Family Well-Being, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984; Durrett, M.E., Otaki, M. & Richards, P., 'Attachment and the mother's perception of support from the father', International Journal of Behavioral Development, 7, 1984, pp. 167-176; Goldberg, W.A. & Easterbrook, M.A., 'The role of marital quality in toddler development', Developmental Psychology, 20, 1984, pp. 504-514; Cummings, E.M. & Watson O'Reilly, A., 'Fathers in family context: Effects of marital quality on child adjustment', in Lamb, M.E. (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3rd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997; Parke, R.D., Power, T.G. & Gottman, J., 'Conceptualizing and quantifying influence patterns in the family triad', in Lamb, M.E., Suomi, S.J. & Stephenson, G.R., (eds.), Social Interaction Analysis: Methodological Issues, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979, pp. 231-252. [2] Burghes, L., Clarke, L. & Cronin, N., Fathers and Fatherhood in Britain, London: Family Policy Studies Centre, 1997, pp 46-48; Amato, P., 'More than money?: Men's contributions to their children's lives', in Booth, A. & Crouter, N. (eds.), Men in Families: When do They Get Involved? What Difference Does it Make?, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1998, pp. 241-278. [3] Parke, R.D., Fatherhood, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996, p 63. The evidence indicates that fathers are more boisterous than mothers in their play with daughters as well as sons. [4] Pruett, K., The Nurturing Father, New York: Warner Books, 1987. [5] Bowlby, J., Attachment and Loss: Vol 1. Attachment, New York: Basic Books, 1969; Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E. & Wall, S., Patterns of Attachment, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978; De Wolff, M. & van IJzendoorn, M., 'Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment', Child Development, 68, 1997, pp. 571-591; Pederson, D. & Moran, G., 'Expressions of the attachment relationship outside of the strange situation', Child Development, 67, 1996, pp. 915-927. [6] Cox, M.J., Owen, M.T., Henderson, V.K. & Margand, N.A., 'Prediction of infant-father and infant-mother attachment', Developmental Psychology, 28, pp. 474-483. [7] Lamb, M., Frodi, A., Hwang, C. & Steinberg, J., 'Mother- and father-infant interactions involving play and holding in traditional and non-traditional Swedish families', Developmental Psychology, 18, 1982, pp. 215-221; De Wolff van IJzendoorn, 'Sensitivity and attachment', Child Development, 1997. [8] Lamb, M.E., 'The development of father-infant relationships', in Lamb (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3rd edition, 1997, pp. 104-120. [9] Biller., H.B., Fathers and Families: Paternal Factors in Child Development, Westport: Auburn, 1993; Biller, H.B. & Trotter, R.J., The Father Factor, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. [10] Teti, D.M., Bond, L.A. & Gibbs, E.D., 'Mothers, fathers, and siblings: A comparison of play styles and their influence upon infant cognitive level', International Journal of Behavioral Development, 11, 1988, pp. 415-432; Power, T. G., 'Mother- and father-infant play: A developmental analysis', Child Development, 56, 1985, pp. 1514-1524; Yogman, M., 'Games fathers and mothers play with their infants', Infant Mental Health Journal, 2, 1981, pp. 241-248. [11] Clarke-Stewart, K.A., 'And Daddy makes three: The father's impact on mother and young child', Child Development, 49, 1978, pp. 466-478; Crawley, S.B. & Sherrod, R.B., 'Parent-infant play during the first year of life', Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 1984, pp. 65-75; Lamb, M.E., 'Father-infant and mother-infant interaction in the first year of life', Child Development, 48, 1977, pp. 167-181; Clarke-Stewart, K.A., 'The father's contribution to children's cognitive and social development in early childhood', in Pedersen, F.A. (ed.), The Father-Infant Relationship: Observational Studies in a Family Setting, New York: Preaeger, 1980, pp. 111-146. [12] Radin, N., 'Primary caregiving fathers in intact families', in Gottfried, A.E. & Gottfried, A.W. (eds.), Redefining Families, New York: Plenum Press, 1994, pp. 11-54.; Radin, N., 'The influence of fathers upon sons and daughters and implications for school social work', Social Work in Education, 8, 1986, pp. 77-91; Nugent, J.K., 'Cultural and psychological influences on the father's role in infant development', Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 1991, pp. 475-585. [13] MacDonald, K. & Parke, R.D., 'Bridging the gap: Parent-child play interaction and peer interactive competence', Child Development, 55, 1984, pp. 1265-1277. [14] Parke, R.D. & Buriel, R., 'Socialization in the family: Ethnic and ecological perspectives', in Damon, W. & Eisenberg, N. (eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol 3. Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, 5th ed., New York: Wiley, 1998, pp. 463-552. [15] MacDonald & Parke, 'Bridging the gap', Child Development, 1984; Collins, W.A. & Russell, G., 'Mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood and adolescence: A developmental analysis', Developmental Review, 11, 1991, pp. 99-136; Bronstein, P., 'Difference in mothers' and fathers' behaviors toward children: A cross-cultural comparison', Developmental Psychology, 20, 1984, pp. 995-1003. [16] Lamb, M.E., Frodi, A.M., Hwang, C.P. & Frodi, M., 'Varying degrees of paternal involvement in infant care: Attitudinal and behavioural correlates', in Lamb, M.E. (ed.), Nontraditional Families: Parenting and Child Development, Hillsdale: Erlbaum, pp. 117-137. [17] Radin, 'Primary caregiving fathers in intact families', 1994; Radin, 'The influence of fathers', Social Work in Education, 1986; Nugent, 'Cultural and psychological influences', Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1991. [18] Cassidy, J., Parke, R.D., Butkovsky, L. & Braungart, J., 'Family-peer connections: The roles of emotional expressiveness within the family and children's understanding of emotions', Child Development, 63, 1992, pp. 603-618; Parke, R.D., MacDonald, K.D., Beitel, A. & Bhavnagri, N., 'The role of the family in the development of peer relationships', in Peters, R.D. & McMahon, R.J. (eds.), Marriages and Families: Behavioral Treatments and Processes, New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1988. [19] Volling, B. & Belsky, J., 'The contribution of mother-child and father-child relationships to the quality of sibling interaction: A longitudinal study', Child Development, 63, 1992, pp. 1209-1222. [20] Gottman, J.M., Katz, L.F. & Hooven, C., Meta-Emotion: How Families Communicate Emotionally, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996; Parke, R.D. & Brott, A.A.,Throwaway Dads: The Myths and Barriers That Keep Men from Being the Fathers They Want to Be, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999, pp 6-7; Koestner, R.S., Franz, C.E. & Weinberger, J., 'The family origins of empathic concern: A 26-year longitudinal study', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 1990, pp. 586-595. [21] Biller, Fathers and Families, 1993. [22] Clarke-Stewart, 'And Daddy makes three', Child Development, 1978; Clarke-Stewart, 'The Father's contribution', in Pedersen (ed.), The Father-Infant Relationship, 1980. [23] Amato, P.R., 'Marital conflict, the parent-child relationship, and child self-esteem', Family Relations, 35, 1986, pp. 403-410. [24] Biller, H.B. & Solomon, R.S., Child Maltreatment and Paternal Deprivation: A Manifesto for Research, Prevention, and Treatment, Lexington, MA: Lexington, 1986. [25] Radin, 'Primary caregiving and rolesharing fathers of preschoolers', in Lamb (ed.), Nontraditional Families, 1982, pp. 173-208; Sagi, A., 'Antecedents and consequences of various degrees of paternal involvement in childrearing: The Israeli Project', in Lamb (ed.), Nontraditional Families, 1982. [26] Biller, H.B., 'Fatherhood: Implications for child and adult development', in Wolman, B.B. (ed.), Handbook of Developmental Psychology, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982, pp. 702-725; Biller & Solomon, Child Maltreatment, 1986. [27] Radin, 'Primary caregiving fathers', 1994; Radin, 'The influence of fathers', Social Work in Education, 1986; Nugent, 'Cultural and psychological influences',Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1991. [28] Kaplan, H.S., Lancaster, J.B. & Anderson, K.G., 'Human parental investment and fertility: The life histories of men in Albuquerque', in Booth & Crouter (eds.),Men in Families, 1998, pp. 55-109. [29] Radin, N., 'The role of the father in cognitive, academic and intellectual development', in Lamb, M.E., (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 1981, pp. 379-427. [30] Snarey, J., How Fathers Care for the Next Generation: A Four Decade Study, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993; Radin, 'Primary caregiving fathers', 1994; Radin, 'The influence of fathers', Social Work in Education, 1986. [31] Biller, Fathers and Families, 1993; Biller & Trotter, The Father Factor, 1994. [32] Snarey, How Fathers Care for the Next Generation, 1993. [33] Barth, J.M. & Parke, R.D., 'Parent-child relationship influences on children's transition to school', Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39, 1992, pp. 173-195. [34] Browne, C.S. & Rife, J.C., 'Social, personality, and gender differences in at-risk and not-at-risk sixth grade students', Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 1991, pp. 482-495; Amato, P.R. & Booth, A., A Generation at Risk: Growing up in an Era of Family Upheaval, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997; Franz, C.E., McClelland, D. & Weinberger, J., 'Childhood antecedents of conventional social accomplishment in midlife adults: A 36-year prospective study', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 1991, pp. 586-595; Snarey, How Fathers Care for the Next Generation, 1993. [35] Reuter, M.W. & Biller, H.B., 'Perceived paternal nurturance-availability and personality adjustment among college males', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 1973, pp. 339-342; Biller, H.B., 'Fatherhood: Implications for child and adult development', in Wolman (ed.), Handbook of Developmental Psychology, 1982, pp. 702-725; Biller, Fathers and Families, 1993. [36] Barkley, R.A., Hyperactive Children: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, New York: Guilford, 1981; Margalit, M., 'Perception of parents' behavior, familial satisfaction, and sense of coherence in hyperactive children', Journal of School Psychology, 23, 1985, pp. 355-364. [37] Hoffman, M.L., 'Father absence and conscience development', Child Development, 4, 1975, pp. 400-406; Hoffman, M.L., 'The role of the father in moral internalization', in Lamb (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development, 2nd ed., 1981, pp. 359-378; Mischel, W., 'Father absence and delay of gratification',Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 1961, pp 116-124. [38] McClelland, D.C., Constantian, C.A., Regalado, D. & Stone, C., 'Making it to maturity', Psychology Today, 12, 1978, pp. 42-46; Biller, Fathers and Families, 1993.; Biller & Trotter, The Father Factor, 1994; Block, J., Lives Through Time, Berkeley, CA: Bancroft, 1971; Appleton, W.S., Fathers and Daughters, New York: Doubleday, 1981. [39] Catan, L., Dennison, C. & Coleman, J., Getting Through: Effective Communication in the Teenage Years, London: Trust for the Study of Adolescence & the BT Forum, 1997; O'Brien, M. & Jones, D., 'Young people's attitudes to fatherhood', in Moss, P. (ed.), Father Figures: Fathers in the Families of the 1990s, Children in Scotland, HMSO, 1995; O'Brien, M. & Jones, D., 'The absence and presence of fathers: Accounts from Children's diaries,' in Bjornberg, U. & Kollind, A-K. (eds.),Men's Family Relations, Gothenburg: University of Goteborg Publications, 1996. [40] Lieberman, M., Doyle, A.B. & Markiewica, D., 'Developmental patterns in security of attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations', Child Development, 70, 1999, pp. 202-213. [41] Amato, P., 'Father involvement and the self-esteem of children and adolescents', Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage, and Family, 7, 1986, pp. 6-16. [42] Cummings, E.M. & O'Reilly, A.W., 'Fathers in family context: Effects of marital quality on child adjustment', in Lamb (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3rd ed., 1997, pp. 49-65; Parke & Buriel, 'Socialization in the family', in Damon & Eisenberg (eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 3 Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, 5th ed., 1998, pp. 463-552; Henggeler, S.W., Edwards, J.J., Cohen, R. & Summerville, M. B., 'Predicting changes in children's popularity: The role of family relations', Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 12, 1992, pp. 205-218; Isley, S., O'Neil, R. & Parke, R.D., 'The relations of parental affect and control behavior to children's classroom acceptance: A concurrent and predictive analysis', Early Education and Development, 7, 1996, pp. 7-23. [43] Shinn, M., 'Father absence and children's cognitive development', Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1978, pp. 295-324. [44] McLanahan, S.S., Seltzer, J.A., Hanson, T.L. & Thomson, E., 'Child support enforcement and child well-being: Greater security or greater conflict?', in Garfinkel, I., McLanahan, S.S. & Robins, P.K. (eds.), Child Support and Child Well-Being, Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1994, pp. 285-316; Graham, J.W., Beller, A.H. & Hernandez, P.M., 'The effects of child support on education attainment', in Garfinkel, McLanahan, & Robins (eds.), Child Support, 1994, pp. 317-354; Knox, V.W. & Bane, M.J., 'Child support and schooling', in Garfinkel, McLanahan, & Robins (eds.), Child Support, 1994, pp. 285-316; Amato, P. & Gilbreth, J.G., 'Nonresident fathers and children's well-being: A meta-analysis', Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 1999, pp. 557-573. King, V., 'Nonresident father involvement and child well-being: Can Dads make a difference?', Journal of Family Issues, 15, 1994, pp. 78-96. [45] Furstenberg, F.F., Jr. & Cherlin, A.J., Divided Families, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991. [46] Ermisch, J. & Francesconi, M., 'Patterns of household and family formation', in Berthoud, R. & Gershuny, J. (eds.) Seven Years in the Lives of British Families: Evidence on the dynamics of social change from the British Household Panel Survey, London: The Policy Press, 2000. [47] Blankenhorn, D., Fatherless America: Confronting our Most Urgent Social Problem, New York: Basic Books, 1995; Popenoe, D., Life Without Father, New York: Free Press, 1996; Horn, W.F., Father Facts, Lancaster, PA: National Fatherhood Initiative, 1995. [48] Baumrind, D., 'Authoritarian versus authoritative parental control', Adolescence, 3, 1968, pp. 255-272; Parke & Buriel, 'Socialization in the family', in Damon & Eisenberg (eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 3. Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, 5th ed., 1998, pp. 463-552.

Effects of Fatherlessness on Children – Social Consequences

Effects of Fatherlessness on Children – Social Consequences.

Source: Bill Woodhttp://waysandmeans.house.gov/humres/107cong/6-28-01/record/chillegalfound.htm Statement of Bill Wood, and Jay Gell, Children's Legal Foundation, Charlotte, North Carolina Bill Wood is a Business Management and Technology Consultant volunteering his time to help families and children in the State of North Carolina and around the country. He is a principal custodian of a 9 year-old girl. Jay Gell is the Founder of the Children’s Legal Foundation in Charlotte, North Carolina. A small group of about 10 people formed after personal experiences with the excesses and abuses of the divorce Industry. Its mission is to promote intact families and create national alliances to change the child-destructive divorce industry. Effects of Fatherlessness on Children – Social Consequences. "Children describe the loss of contact with a parent as the primary negative aspect of divorce." 1Meanwhile, society is just now beginning to recognize on a widespread basis what children have known all along--; father-absence is one of the most destructive forces to children in our society. As has been noted "[f]ather-absence is the greatest social problem we face."2 Father-absence associated with divorce and sole maternal custody, is the primary predictor of a host of societal ills affecting and destroying children "The decline of fatherhood is a major force behind many of the most disturbing problems that plague America: crime and juvenile delinquency; premature sexuality and out-of-wedlock births to teenagers; deteriorating educational achievement; depression, substance abuse, and alienation among adolescents; and the growing number of women and children in poverty… Fathers are the first and most important men in the lives of girls. They provide role models, accustoming their daughters to male-female relationships. Engaged and responsive fathers play with their daughters and guide them into challenging activities. They protect them, providing them with a sense of physical and emotional security. Girls with adequate fathering are more able, as they grow older, to develop constructive heterosexual relationships based on trust and intimacy… Why does living without a father pose such hazards for children? Two explanations are usually given: The children receive less supervision and protection from men mothers bring home, and they are also more emotionally deprived, which leaves them vulnerable to sexual abusers… Even a diligent absent father can’t supervise or protect his children the way a live-in father can. Nor is he likely to have the kind of relationship with his daughter that is usually needed to give her a foundation of emotional security and a model for nonsexual relationships with men… 3 Promiscuity, teen pregnancy, child sexual abuse, and ongoing difficulties in later family life are results of feminist misandry infecting society with a "father hatred" causing father-absence; Single motherhood, once lauded by the feminist icon "Murphy Brown," has thoroughly produced its cultural "poisoned fruit" (Candace Bergen 4 and the feminists then attacked Vice President Dan Quayle for his support of the family). White teenage girls in 1988 were 72% more likely than their father-present peers to become single mothers, while there was a 100% increase for black teenage girls,5 other studies also reported up to a 600% increase in teenage illegitimate births.6 Over 10 years later, out-of-wedlock-births have reduced slightly and stabilized, while the subject population has reduced accounting for much of the difference. 7 In contrast, more involved fathers protect girls from engaging in first sex, lower the risk of using illicit substances, and also reduce the risk of violent behavior."8 This protection "from engaging in first sex," or promoting abstinence, is the most certain way to reduce teenage pregnancy and avoid a whole host of issues caused by promiscuity. Father-absence creates increases in child sex-role conflicts,9 and a 100% increase in gender identity struggles.10 Before it became "politically correct taboo" to treat homosexuality as a potential malady or disorder,11 father-absence created a significant increase in the likelihood of homosexual behavior in males as well as females.12 The contrasts are striking because reversing the trend of illegitimacy requires, above all, presence of a father in the daily lives of children. It is not just "participation" of a father in the lives of children. It is primarily the "presence" of a father: "Fathers who actively engage in joint activities and interaction with adolescents promote their educational and economic achievement and fathers who maintain a close stable emotional bond with adolescents over time protect adolescents from engaging in delinquent behaviors." 13 Some of the additional "poisoned fruit" deeply planted and rooted in young women by the "enlightened, anti-marriage, male-hating feminists" include difficulty for girls in building a stable family in adulthood,14 increased incidence of child sexual abuse,15 and heightened incidence of fatal child abuse by mothers.16 Teenage boys risk a 77% 17 to 100% 18 increase in the overall likelihood of fathering an illegitimate child and therefore, as the research has shown, perpetuating the father-absence cycle for another generation (or generations to come). Teenage girls run a 92% greater risk of continuing the divorce cycle. 19 Infants and toddlers (two and younger) proved up to 100 times more likely to be killed by stepparents than by biological parents.20Preschoolers living without their biological father were 40 times more likely to be a victim of child abuse as compared to those living with their father.21 Even stepfathers do not foster improvement much better than outright father-absence. There seems to be little substitute for the presence of a caring biological father. "Receipt of child support does not appear to make a significant difference" and "the presence of a step-parent does not significantly improve a child’s situation, either."22 Children living with a mother and stepfather fared poorly on most indicators. 23 Child abuse occurs most frequently within stepfamilies, and, in fact, most sexual abuse occurs in stepfamilies.24 Sexual abuse of girls by their stepfathers can be at a minimum six or seven times higher, 25 and may be up to 40 times 26 that of sexual abuse by biological fathers in intact families. When it comes to the risk of abuse with unrelated males, Barbara Dafoe Whitehead explains: "Stepfathers also pose a sexual risk to children, especially stepdaughters. They are more likely than biological fathers to commit acts of sexual abuse, and are less likely to protect daughters from other male predators. According to a Canadian study, children in stepfamilies are forty times as likely to suffer physical or sexual abuse as children in intact families." 27 It is worth noting that stepfathers cannot make up for the lack of a biological father. In fact, Maggie Gallagher notes: "Children in stepfamilies do no better on average than children in single-parent homes…Failing to understand the erotic relations that are at the heart of family life, they [sociologists] failed to predict what, sadly and surprisingly, later research strongly suggested: Remarriage is not only not necessarily a cure; it is often one of the risks children of divorce face" 28 Father-absence promotes anti-social behavior as well as criminal activity and psychological problems. Delinquency of children, and in particular boys, is promoted by father-absence.29 The problems with not having fathers in children’s lives can be so severe that they can cause an 86% increase in the likelihood that a child will become a psychotic delinquent. 30 Some of the widely recognized statistics of the ills, and cost to society of father-absence include; 90% of all homeless and runaway children,3170% of juveniles in state-operated institutions,32 75% of all adolescent patients in chemical abuse centers,33 85% of prison youths,34 and talk about promoting a danger to women -- up to 80% of rapists, motivated by displaced anger.35 There is also a threefold increase in the likelihood that a child will be involved in gang activity.36 Over the existing population, there is a 200% increase in the likelihood that a child will require psychological treatment 37 with 85% of all father-absent children exhibiting behavioral disorders38This is a crucial point for consideration for every attorney, and every judge that separates a fit father from his children. They are PROMOTING behavioral disorders. Low self-esteem is suffered by both girls 39 and boys.40 There is a 200% increase in attempted or successful teen suicides 41 with 63% of all [successful] youth suicides from fatherless homes.42 Academic performance is severely affected Father-absence creates a significant decrease in school performance, 43 a significant increase in disruptive school behavior, 44 a significant decrease in performance on aptitude tests, in cognitive skills, in terms of grades, and is cumulative in nature; 45 and predicts truancy and grade repetition. 46Fatherless children also account for 71% of all high school dropouts. 47 Some of the affects of this low academic achievement can be seen in the substantial increase in men’s odds of ending up in the lowest occupational stratum 48 repeating the "illegitimacy cycle, and ending up "dead-broke" unable to support their children. In contrast to this academic destruction of children, father-present children "are more likely to get mostly A’s, to enjoy school, and to participate in extracurricular activities if their nonresident fathers are involved in their schools than if they are not." The report laments that "[t]he majority ofnonresident fathers, however, are not involved in their children’s schools." 49 There are ample studies to show (explored later) that this is not entirely by their choice. Surprising CAUSES of Fatherlessness Certainly, no reasonable person would suggest that some fathers do not abdicate, or completely avoid and abandon their responsibilities to their child(ren). Surprisingly, that is not one of the larger causes of fatherlessness. 50 The largest causes of fatherlessness will come as a surprise and shock to most. The single largest reason that fathers do not see their children is a result of female-initiated divorce for no "good" reason. 51 There are a number of studies and commentaries that indicate the reasons of female-initiated divorce, and rates that may be greater than 80% while most of the studies indicate 66% - 75%. 52 "In reality … throughout most of North American history wives have filed for divorce twice as often as husbands…" The proportion of divorces initiated by women ranged around 60% for most of the 20th century, and climbed to more than 70% in the late 1960s when no-fault divorce was introduced: so says a just-released study by law professor Margaret Brinig of George Mason University in Arlington, Virginia and Douglas Allen, economist at Vancouver's Simon Fraser University. The researchers undertook one of the largest studies ever on divorce, using 46,000 cases from the four American states that keep statistics on which partner initiates the action. In addition to women filing twice as often, the researchers found, they are more likely to instigate separations and marriage break ups. The Brinig-Allen study also explodes the myth of the brutish husband, finding, for instance, that cruelty is cited in only 6% of divorce applications in Virginia, one of the few states that still uses fault grounds for divorce… Arizona State University psychologist Sanford Braver provides backup for the Brinig-Allen study. In his new book, Divorced Dads: Shattering the Myths, Mr. Braver surveyed 400 divorcing couples seeking causes for the breakdown of their marriages. He found "violence or abuse strikingly absent." Instead, less dramatic factors prevailed, such as "growing apart" or "spouse not able or willing to meet my needs." …In 25% of marriage breakdowns … men have "no clue" there is a problem until the woman tells them they want out. …[W]omen are more likely to file if the divorce rate is high in their area or if their friends and families are doing it. "Where the divorce rate is low so there's a lot of stigma attached," … "they won't leave..." "The rights of women in society have been pushed to such an extent that they now feel if they're not happy, it's their partner's fault," says marriage researcher Walter Schneider… "That perception is heightened by the social conditioning of men to be chivalrous. Men have to be protectors of women and children, so they are reluctant to become involved in an adversarial process against a woman. They're also less likely to seek divorce because that would destroy their self-image as providers and protectors of the family. It would destroy their world; all they've sacrificed for would go down the drain." Mr. Schneider points to an Australian study indicating that… divorced persons have the highest suicide rate... But according to Professors Brinig and Allen, [the mother’s] custody of the children may be the very reason her husband provides so little support. There are three basic reasons people file for divorce they say: (1) to stop being exploited within the marriage, (2) to exploit the other spouse by running off with marital investments, or (3) to establish custody over children. They believe that determining which of the three predominates could assist divorce law reformers. If divorces result mostly from bad (or exploitive) marriages, the Brinig-Allen study suggests, then divorce should be made (or kept) easier; if divorces result mostly from a desire to exploit the partner, then it should be made more difficult or expensive; and if it is custody outcomes which most influence divorce filings, a presumption of joint custody, except where one parent can demonstrate the other is unfit, would "mitigate the incentive for one party filing for the purpose of gaining unilateral control over the children and therefore the other spouse." After analyzing 21 wide-ranging variables, the Brinig-Allen study concludes that the person who anticipates gaining custody of the children is the one most likely to file for divorce. Therefore, Prof. Brinig speculates, if joint custody were the norm, there would likely be fewer divorces, not more… In fact, however, divorce rates are plunging in states where courts typically award custody of children to both parents. A study headed by Richard Kuhn of the Children's Rights Council based in Washington, D.C., found that states with higher levels of joint custody awards in 1989 and 1990 "have shown significantly greater declines in divorces in the following years through 1995, compared with other states." Overall divorce rates declined nearly four times faster in high joint-custody states compared with states where joint custody is relatively rare. A large factor, the researchers believe, is that joint custody "removes the capacity for one spouse to hurt the other by denying participation in raising the children." 53 Dr. Richard Warshak, among America's leading experts on father custody, described the history of routine custody arrangements as follows: "In earlier times it was assumed that men, by nature, are better suited to protect and provide for children. Since 1920, it has been assumed that women, by nature, are better suited to love and care for children. "These assumptions, which so powerfully affect so many children's lives, are based on nothing more than folklore and sexual stereotypes... As guidelines for custody dispositions, folklore, sentiment, and stereotypes are poor substitutes for factual information. In the last two decades, social scientists have examined different custody arrangements and their effects on children's development. If this information is ignored, and we continue to allow myth and sentiment to rule custody decisions, we short-change our children and we short-change ourselves." 54 Excerpt as adapted from US House of Representatives written testimony of Richard Weiss and William Wood.55 Non-compliance with court ordered visitation is three times the problem of non-compliance with court ordered child support and impacts the children of divorce even more. And the picture gets worse. When mothers are awarded primary or "sole" custody, 37.9% of fathers, end up with no access/visitation rights.56 And another study found that 42% of fathers fail to see their children at all after divorce. 57 The very narrow difference (~ 4% variance) between these two studies where the COURTS remove the father, and the overall loss of parental contact indicates that the courts themselves are the biggest culprit in this. 58 Non-compliance with court ordered visitation by custodial mothers prevents 77% of non-custodial fathers from being able to "visit" their children 59. 40% of custodial mother SELF-REPORTS indicate they interfered with the father's visitation to "punish" children’s fathers, 60 other fathers "often experience intense conflicts with their former spouses, and these conflicts typically interfere with their on-going parent-child relationships." 61 Another study reported that 25-33% of them outright DENIED visits (in defiance of an established order) 62 ~50% see no value in the father's involvement with the child, 63 and many use the children to retaliate against the father for their own ongoing personal problems. 64 Sole custodial mothers exert power and control to abuse court orders, denying fathers visitation, 65 and they would also sabotage father’s involvement in their children’s lives. 66 And finally fathers absolutely WANT to be with their children, or these child-destroying, spiteful acts would be useless 67 without a "control and power" incentive. The court system does not enforce orders for "visitation" 68 but jails for non-compliance with a "child" support order. This is a clear indication that the whole DIVORCE INDUSTRY 69 is about money 70 and children are just the "poker chips" in this high stakes "game". Their destruction is just "collateral damage" for the marriage hating special interests pushing their child destroying propaganda. As the Family Law Quarterly noted as early as 1984, the majority view of the psychiatric and pediatric profession is that mothers and fathers are equals as parents 71. There is an abundance of studies indicating fathers are equally qualified parents. 72 And fathers have been seeking to be involved in family matters for some time now. 73 The legal system uses an indeterminate criteria, pseudo-named a "standard" called the "best interests of the child standard". If the courts were honest in their use of the "best interests of the child" then so much social science information and information that "[t]he primary negative aspect of divorce reported by children in numerous studies was loss of contact with a parent" 74 could not be ignored so easily. After all, there is a repeated description of "the dissatisfaction of so many youngsters who felt they were not seeing their fathers often enough. If custody and visiting issues are to be within the realm of the 'best interest of the child,' then such widespread discontent must be taken very seriously."75 When examining the undisputed child’s viewpoint, cutting through the hysterical feminist propaganda and hyperbole, and looking at the child’s viewpoint, there is only one tenable answer--; the "best interests of the child" dictates something akin to 50-50 shared parenting. "One clear message from the accumulated divorce research is that children profit by continued [frequent] exposure to both parents." 76 Unfortunately it is the rule, rather than the exception that trial courts are bound by the relics of antiquated stereotypes in their dealings with child custody and visitation questions. Especially when there are modern approaches that better serve the "best interests of the child". Courts are ruthlessly efficient in establishing specific standards, guidelines, criteria and rules for dealing with Child Support where the state has a vested interest in collecting TANF funds provided by the Federal Government. So much so that there are almost NO reasons that some party cannot be found to PAY. Even in those cases where there is CLEARLY fraud involved (such as in the case of an unfaithful spouse who becomes pregnant and deceives the other). Recommendations: Make TANF funds contingent upon a statutory presumption of 50-50 shared parenting with the rebuttal to that presumption being a VOLUNTARY reduction by either party, OR a detailed finding of unfitness by one of the parties. 77 When mothers are awarded primary or "sole" custody, 37.9% of fathers, end up with no access/visitation rights 78. Require all, or at least a portion of the TANF funds to be used to promote marriages and father involvement. 79 [Federal and State governments have an obligation of promoting "a more perfect union… establish[ing] justice… insur[ing] domestic tranquility… promot[ing] the general welfare… and secur[ing] the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity" 80. Anything less is a violation of the INTENT AND PURPOSE of the US Constitution and is therefore, unconstitutional.] Tie TANF Funding to enforcement of visitation orders. Courts ROUTINELY imprison for Child support under the GUISE of "contempt" (which could reasonably be argued as the forbidden "debtor’s prison"), yet rarely prosecute for, or enforce visitation except under extreme circumstances.81 Tie TANF fund bonuses, and additional block grants to those states that are successful in reducing divorce, and in promoting stable families. If this is really all about the children, then a father’s wallet can no longer be a substitute for his presence. Change the Health and Human Services mission to strengthening marriages and parental relationships, away from "divorce industry support." What greater "Human Service" than promoting children’s Health by supporting marriage and fighting divorce?? Have the Federal Government begin gathering social studies data once again. 82 In spite of the studies listed in this paper, the federal government no longer collects data on many family issues and only the Census has given any indication of how bad the situation REALLY is. Conclusions: In tying TANF funds to those things that are anathema to the divorce industry the culture is stabilized, and the repair and restoration of our children can begin. It also removes the pressure, and the performance measures from the state to knowingly, or unknowingly, advance anti-family, and anti-father policies. While no "Family Law" judge will admit it, it will also remove any incentive or pressure upon them to "maximize" child support awards even if it destroys one parent or the family. 83Additional benefits of a 50-50 legal and physical custody presumption (akin to the Child Support rebuttable presumption), are: 1) Reduces parental incentives to carry out litigation; 2) Reduces judicial discretion; 3) Creates greater incentive to settle outside of court; 4) Lowers acrimony and "back and forth" battles; 5) Lowers case backlogs and judicial burden and thereby maximizes judicial economy; 6) Lowers some of the incentives to divorce; 7) Reduces some of the struggles that children must endure by being "caught in the middle"; and a whole host of other benefits. No matter how mighty America may be, and no matter what this country may believe, there is no nation in recorded history that has long survived the destruction of its families and culture. There will certainly be those who are opposed to these recommendations, but careful scrutiny will quickly reveal that they have some vested interest (usually financially) in the continuation of the current family destroying, and child injuring system. In the shining light of the evidence, government and judicial policies that reduce fathers to little more than "wallets" and do not promote involvement as their PRIMARY focus, serve to undermine the Constitution’s purpose of "a more perfect union… establish[ing] justice… insur[ing] domestic tranquility… promot[ing] the general welfare… and secur[ing] the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity." Fatherlessness studies can no longer be ignored for the affects it has on our "posterity." The government and the judiciary MUST change their "automatic-men-at-fault" policies lest our posterity look back upon this and see today’s policies as an attempt to undermine the Constitution and the country. There is enough data to suggest that any policy OR PRACTICE by government, or its agencies, that prevents father involvement, whether by legislation or judicial decree, is promoting child abuse and may violate the intent of the United States Constitution (noted in the preamble) making it unconstitutional! 1 J Kelly. Assoc. of Family and Conciliation Courts, California Chapter Mtg, Sonoma, CA, Jan. 1991. 2 D. Blankenhorn. Fatherless America. (New York: BasicBooks, 1995), Title page. 3 D. Popenoe. “Life without father.”  In: C. Daniels, ed. Lost fathers: The Politics of Fatherlessness in America . (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998). 4 June 1992, Vice President Dan Quayle criticized the TV show Murphy Brown for promoting single motherhood.  Chaos ensued and he was incessantly ridiculed by Hollywood and the media.  Candace Bergen wins an Emmy for her portrayal of Murphy Brown and begins another career giving commencement speeches on University campuses.  [Author commentary] With the complete absorption of feminist, anti-family, anti-father philosophy so deeply entrenched in Hollywood, the media, and gaining a stranglehold over the courts, is it any wonder that families are being destroyed, children are suffering, and our culture is decaying? 5 S. McLanahan. Demography 25, Feb. 1988, p. 1-16. 6 Y. Matsuhashi et al. (1988).   J Adolescent Health Care 10, 409-412. 7 Most WW2 baby-boomers are past child-bearing age and their children are beyond teenage years. 8 K. Harris et al. Paternal involvement with adolescents in intact families: The influence of fathers over the life course, presented at the annual meeting of the Am. Sociol. Assoc., New York, N.Y., August 16-20, 1996; Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, N.C., 27516, p. 28. 9 H. Biller, (1974).  Paternal Deprivation: Family, School, Sexuality, and Society (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath) 10 G. Rekers. Journal of Family and Culture, 2, No. 3 (Autumn, 1986), p. 8-31. 11 As was listed in the Psych profession’s DSM-III before it was removed through political pressure from the DSM-IV. 12 H. Biller, Paternal Deprivation: Family, School, Sexuality, and Society (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1974), p.114. 13 Ibid.14 S McLanahan, L Bumpass. (July, 1988).  Am J Sociol, 4, 130-152. 15 A Sedlak (August 30, 1991).   “Supplementary Analyses of Data on the National Incidence of Child Abuse and Neglect” (Rockville, Md.: Westat) table 6-2, p. 6-5.  see also, Gomes-Schwartz, Horowitz, and Cardarelli, Child Sexual Abuse Victims and their Treatment, 1988 (69% of victims of child sexual abuse came from homes where the biological father was absent) 16 H. Biller, (1974).  Paternal Deprivation: Family, School, Sexuality, and Society (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath), p. 21f. see also, Fatherless Families Spawning Virulent Form of Child Abuse," New York Tribune, June 6, 1984 17 W. Marsiglio Family Planning Perspective 19 Nov/Dec, 1987, 240-251. 18 B. Christensen. The Family in America. Vol 3, no. 4 [April 1989], p.3. 19 Warren Farrell presentation at NCMC conference, 1992; Hetherington, 1972 20 Wilson and Daly, "The Risk of Maltreatment of Children Living with Stepparents," in Richard J. Gelles and Jane B. Lancaster, eds., Child Abuse and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions, Foundations of Human Behavior (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987), p. 215-232. 21 Wilson and Daly in Child Abuse and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions, 1987. 22 K. Harris. Reuters. Fathers’ Care Benefits Children. N.Y., August 25, 1998. 23 National Center for Health Statistics, June 1991. 24 David M. Fergusson, Michael T. Lynskey, and L. John Horwood, (1996).  "Childhood Sexual Abuse and Psychiatric Disorders in Young Adulthood: I. Prevalence of Sexual Abuse and Factors Associated with Sexual Abuse," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 34, pp. 1355-1364. 25 Diana E. H. Russell, (1984).   "The Prevalence and Seriousness of Incestuous Abuse: Stepfathers vs. Biological Fathers," Child Abuse and Neglect, Vol. 8, pp. 15-22. 26 See Wilson and Daly, "The Risk of Maltreatment of Children Living with Stepparents," p. 228. 27 M Daly, M Wilson. Homicide (N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1988), p.89. 28 M. Gallagher, (1996).  The abolition of Marriage: How We Destroy Lasting Love.  DC., Regnery Pub, Chapter 6. 29 M. Wynn. Fatherless Families: A Study of Families Deprived of a Father by Death, Divorce, Separation, or Desertion Before and After Marriage (N.Y.: London and Maxwell, 1964), p. 147. 30 R. Zagar. J Am. Acad. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28 [1989]:437-440. 31 US Department Health and Human Services Bureau of Census 32 U.S. Dept. of Justice, Special Report, Sept. 1988. 33 Rainbow for All God’s Children 34 Fulton Co. Georgia jail populations, Texas Dept. Corrections, 1992. 35 R. Knight, R., R. Prentky. Criminal Justice and Behavior Vol. 14 (Dec 1987), 403-426. 36 Christensen at footnote 24. 37 N. Kalter. Am. J Orthopsychiatry, 57 (4), October, 1987. 38 Center for Disease Control 39 E Wakerman. Father Loss: Daughters Discuss the Man that Got Away. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, p. 109. 40 H Biller. Father, Child, and Sex Role. (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1971), p.3. 41 Prof. Victor R. Fuchs, Stanford Univ., LA Times, Oct. 24, 1988. 42 U.S. D.H.H.S., Bureau of the Census 43 M Thompson, K Alexander, D. Entwwisle. Social Forces, 67, Dec. 1988, 424-451. 44 R Forehand et al. Journal of Behavior Therapy and experimental Psychiatry, 18, (Dec 1987): 325-328. 45 H Biller, R Solomon. Child Maltreatment and Paternal Deprivation: A Manifesto for Research, Prevention, and Treatment (Lex, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1986), p. 136. 46 G Bauer. Report to the President from the White House Working Group on the Family. Feb., 1988. 47 National Principals Association Report on the State of High Schools 48 T Biblarz, A Raftery. Am Sociol Review, 1 (Feb 1993), p. 97. 49 U.S. Department of  Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, NCES 98-117 (June 1998). 50 "Non custodial parents, who are usually men, are likely to be negatively affected in psychological ways. A most pervasive problem is suffering caused by the feeling that they have lost their children."Increasing Our Understanding of Fathers Who Have Infrequent Contact With Their Children. James R. Dudley, Professor, University North Carolina, under a grant from Temple University, Family Relations, Vol. 4, No. 3, July 1991 pg. 279, col. 2, 2, lines 1 - 551 This is a limited list as there is an abundance of sources:Friedman and Percival (1976).  “Who sues for Divorce?” – 5 Journal of Legal Studies 61-82.  see pages 71, 75, 78, 81. Gunter and Johnson (1978). “Divorce Filing as Role Behavior:  Effect of No-Fault Law on Divorce Filing Patterns,”  Journal of Marriage and Family 571-574.  see page 572. Pettit, E.J. & Bloom, B.L. (1984).  “Whose decision was it: The effects of initiator status on adjustment to marital disruption.”  Journal of Marriage and the Family, 587-595. Stark (1991).  “Divorce Law, Feminism, and Psychoanalysis:  In Dreams Begin Responsibilities,” 38 UCLA Law Review 1483-1531.   see page 1514, note 149. Braver et. al. (1993).  “Who Divorced Whom?  Methodological and Theoretical Issues,” 20 Journal of Divorce and Remarriage 1-19. Brinig  (1993).   “The Law and Economics of No-Fault Divorce,” 26 Family Law Quarterly 453-470. Brinig and Buckley (1998).  “No-Fault Laws and At-Fault People,’ 18 International Review of Law & Economics 325-340. Brinig, M. and Allen D (2000).  “These Boots are Made for Walking:  Why most divorce filers are women.” 52 This is a limited list as there is an abundance of sources:Weitzman, 1985.  “The Divorce Revolution: The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America,”  New York: The Free Press, page 460. Chambers, 1979.  “Making Fathers Pay -- the wife is the moving party in divorce actions seven times out of eight."  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. page 29. Hite, 1987.  “Women and Love: A Cultural Revolution in Progress” where it is stated "ninety-one percent of women who have divorced say they made the decision to divorce, not their husbands." New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987, page 459. Colorado Supreme Court - Task Force on Gender Bias in the Courts.  Gender and Justice in the Colorado Courts from the Task Force Report, 1990.  Revealed that 7 out of 8 divorces are initiated by women (88%) Fetzner, William of WFEJ clerk of the courts data from a five county study of child custody and support assessments in Marian, Howard, Hancock, Grant, and Rush counties (Indiana) in 1985. Petitions filed by mother: 76.7% - of 2,033 dissolutions granted, 1,599 (76.7%) were filed by wives, 474 (23.3%) were filed by husbands. Joan Kelly, author of Surviving the Breakup, “Divorce is sought about three to one by women” (cited in Joint Custody Newsletter, January, 1988). Ahrons, C. (1994).  The good divorce. NY: Harper Collins page 92. 53 Mclean, Candis.  Look Who Doesn't Want A Divorce.  New Studies Indicate Women Are First To File, But That Joint Custody Keeps Families Together.  January 11, 1999 54 Dr. Richard Warshak, The Custody Revolution (1992) ppg. 33-34. 55 Serial No. 106-107 -- H.R. 1488, The ``Hyde-Woolsey'' Child Support Bill, March 16, 2000. 56 Census Bureau P-60, #173, Sept 1991.  p.6, col.II, para. 6, lines 4 & 5 57 Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr. and Christine Winquist Nord, "Parenting Apart: Patterns of Childbearing after Marital Disruption," Journal of Marriage and the Family 47, no. 4 (November 1985): 874, cited in Sylvia Ann Hewlett, When the Bough Breaks (1991) at 286-287. 58 While it is possible that the correlation between these two studies may be anecdotal, the time frame is similar, and can the courts continue to “flirt with disaster” in so many separations of children from their fathers? 59 Visitational Interference - A National Study, Ms. J Annette Vanini, M.S.W. and Edward Nichols, M.S.W. (September 1992) 60 Frequency of visitation by Divorced Fathers; Differences in Reports by Fathers and Mothers. Sanford Braver et al, Am. J. of Orthopsychiatry, 1991. p. 449, col. II, lines 3-6, (citing Fulton) 61 See footnote 50.  Family Relations, Vol. 4, No. 3, July 1991 pg. 279, col. 2, 2, lines 15 - 19 62 Frequency of Visitation by Divorced Fathers: Differences in Reports by Fathers and Mothers - Sanford H. Braver, Ph.D., Sharlene A. Wolchik, Ph.D., Irwin M. Sandler, Ph.D., Bruce S. Fogas, Ph.D., Daria Zvetina, M.Ed. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry pg. 451, col. 2, 2, lines 11 - 1463 Surviving the Breakup, Joan Kelly & Judith Wallerstein, p. 125 64 Journal of Marriage & the Family, Vol. 51, p. 1015, Seltzer, Shaeffer & Charing, November 1989 65 "Unilateral abuse of parental custodial power is more common in court ordered sole custody situations." Child Custody and Parental Cooperation - Frank Williams, M.D., Dir. Psychiatry - Cedar-Sinai - Presented to the American Bar Association, Family Law Section, August 1987 and January 1988 pg. 4, col. 1, 1, lines 17 - 2066 The Effect of the Post Divorce Relationship on Paternal Involvement: A Longitudinal Analysis - Constance R. Ahrons, Ph.D., and Richard B. Miller, Ph.D., American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 63, No. 3, July 1993 pg. 442, Col. 1, 1, lines 23 - 2767 "Most men were dissatisfied with the frequency of visitation".   Visitation and the Noncustodial Father - Mary Ann P. Koch, Carol R. Lowery, Journal of Divorce, Vol. 8, No. 2, Winter 1984, pg. 54, 4 lines 5 also noted was "70% of fathers felt they had too little time with their children."  pg 54, 4, lines 5 - 768 "The court's failure to enforce or expand visitation agreements were a frequently mentioned complaint" Increasing Our Understanding of Fathers Who Have Infrequent Contact With Their Children - James R. Dudley, Professor, University North Carolina, under a grant from Temple University, Family Relations, Vol. 4, No. 3, July 1991 pg. 281, col. 2, 2, lines 14 - 1669 This is a list of some who benefit or participate, financial or otherwise, in the continued breakdown of the family, destruction of marriage, or in the increased male acrimony (termed misandry – male hatred). 70 "Few men can afford to legally contest every infringement of the visitation agreement." Visitation and the Noncustodial Father - Mary Ann P. Koch, Carol R. Lowery, Journal of Divorce, Vol. 8, No. 2, Winter 1984 - pg. 60, 3, lines 11 - 1271 See J. Atkinson, "Criteria for Deciding Child Custody in the Trial and Appellate Courts, " Family Law Quarterly, Vol. XVIII, No 1 (Spring 1984). 72 Michael E. lamb & Abraham Sagi eds., 1983) Studies show that fathers can be "just as sensitive and competent in care-giving as mothers"; William Marsiglio, Fatherhood, Contemporary Theory, Research and Social Policy (William Marsiglio ed., 1995) Men interact differently with children but their ability to parent is just as effective; Pamela Daniels & Kathy Weingarten, The Fatherhood Click: The Timing of Parenthood in Men's Lives, in Fatherhood Today: Men's Changing Role in the Family (Phyllis Bronstein & Carolyn Cowen eds., 1988) ("Fatherhood Today") Nurturing is not inherent in either a mother or father, but must be learned and developed by both. 73 "[A]part from any response to the women's movement, men are also seeking increased emotional closeness with their infants as part of a men's movement toward fuller personhood, and as a reaction against the alienation and burnout of the purely instrumental role of family provider." Michael W. Yogman, James Cooley, and Daniel Kindlon, Fathers, Infants, and Toddlers, in Fatherhood Today 74 Hetherington et al., 1982; Kurdek & Berg, 1983; Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980, Warshak & Santrock, 1983. 75 J. Wallerstein and J. Kelly, Surviving the Breakup, 142-143 (1980) . See also, D. Luepnitz, Child Custody, A Study of Families After Divorce, (1983). 76 M. Koch, C. Lowry. Journal of Divorce, Vol. 8, No. 2, Winter 1984. 77 1988 Census "Child Support and Alimony: 1989 Series P-60, No. 173. pages 6-7.  90.2% of fathers with joint custody pay the child support due. 78 Census Bureau P-60, #173, Sept 1991.  p.6, col.II, para. 6, lines 4 & 5 79 5 Wm. & Mary J. Women & L. 1 (1998) - HOW JUDGES USE THE PRIMARY CARETAKER STANDARD TO MAKE A CUSTODY DETERMINATION.  Page 37. “Compared with those [children] raised in intact two-parent families, adults who experienced a parental divorce had lower psychological well-being, more behavioral problems, less education, lower job status, a lower standard of living, lower marital satisfaction, a heightened risk of divorce, a heightened risk of being a single parent, and poorer physical health.”  (as cited from Paul R. Amato, Life-span Adjustment of Children to Their Parents' Divorce, in 4 The Future of Children page 146. (1994)) 80 As excerpted from the preamble of the US Constitution.  This preamble sets these principles forth as the GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR ALL CONSTITUTIONAL INTERPRETATION. 81 1988 Census "Child Support and Alimony: 1989 Series P-60, No. 173. pages 6-7.  79.1% of fathers with visitation privileges pay the child support due. Only 44.5% of fathers with no visitation pay the child support due. 82 Government studies in a number of family issues that were not “politically correct” were stopped in 1993 under the previous administration. 83 All judicial pensions and retirements are tied to the State’s bonds, funds, and the general fund. When TANF funds are allowed in the general fund, it supplements and supports the strength of their retirements and is a strong motivator for potential abuses by some (though certainly not all) unscrupulous judges.